Survey of Living Primates

Friderun Ankel-Simons , in Primate Anatomy (Third Edition), 2007

Infraorder Lorisiformes (Gregory, 1915)

Superfamily Lorisoidea (Gray, 1821)

Family Lorisidae ix (Gray, 1821)

Subfamily Lorisinae

The relationships amid Lorisines were discussed in great item past Rasmussen and Nekaris (1998).

Family Lorisidae contains two Asian genera, Loris and Nycticebus, the former being comparatively slender and the latter having a more stocky build. The family'south ii African genera, Arctocebus and Perodicticus, are also divided in i slender genus with two species namely Arctocebus calabarensis. Schwartz and Beutel (1995) raised the subspecies A. c. aureus to species rank, whereas the other genus and species, Perodicticus potto, is similar to the Asian dull loris, existence more robust overall than Arctocebus. Asiatic Nycticebus is comparatively stout.

All members of the lorisine subfamily take so-called retia mirabilia of capillaries in their hands and feet, which provide sustained claret supply to lorises, which can powerfully clamp onto a branch for hours at a fourth dimension without their extremities getting numb.

Loris (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1796) Slender Loris Loris tardigradus
Loris lyddekkerianus

The genus that gives its proper name to the family unit Lorisidae has only two species (Groves, 1998): the slender Loris, Loris tardigradus (Effigy 4.17), and L. lydekkerianus. The results of two long-term field studies of this genus have been published (Nekaris, 1997; Kar Gupta, 1998; Nekaris and Rasmussen, 2003). Slender lorises are restricted in distribution to southern India and Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon). Their trunk plus head length varies between 18 and 27 cm, and their tail is very short, equally is the case in the 3 other genera of this family. Fore- and hind limbs are almost equal in length and elongated; the intermembral index averages 91.

Figure 4.17. Loris tardigradus, the slender loris.

 Photo courtesy of Dieter Glaser. From Ankel-Simons, 1983. Copyright © 1983

Lorises have round heads and round ears that stick out from the head. The large eyes are positioned comparatively close to each other, and the narrow cage ends in a snub nose. The eyes are surrounded by nighttime areas of fur that are narrow below the eyes and extended above the eyes, giving the animals a surprised expression. The Lorises fur is shorter and sparser than in the other Asian lorises, peculiarly on the limbs, thus giving the beast the impression of beingness slender and having scrawny arms and legs. Although the fur is not dense, their heels are haired. Habitually, all Lorises commonly climb slowly and deliberately, but they can move rapidly when catching prey or attempting to escape from a predator (A.C. Walker, 1969). Slender lorises are arboreal and inhabit tropical pelting forests. Individual lorises are said to live solitary. Being nocturnal, they sleep during the day rolled up in crotches betwixt the branches of trees, securing their position with the clasping feet. Lorises announced to have two mating seasons a twelvemonth, in April–May and in November. Slender lorises ordinarily have single births, but twin births can occur. They urine marker their territories and intensively employ urine washing every bit is known from all lorisidae.

Nycticebus (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812) Wearisome Loris Nycticebus coucang
Nycticebus pygmaeus
Nycticebus bengalensis
Nycticebus menagensis x
10
Regarded to be a subspecies of Due north. coucang by Brandon-Jones et al. (2004)

Members of genus Nycticebus are commonly known equally deadening loris. Nycticebus, now with four species, has a wide distribution over the southeast Asian continent and adjacent islands. The animals inhabit the loftier strata of the tropical rain forest. Irksome lorises have a comparatively more beefy appearance than slender lorises. This is peculiarly true for their extremities. The head is circular; the snout appears to be less pointed than in slender lorises. The ears are sparsely haired, somewhat smaller than in slender lorises and subconscious in the dense fur. The expanse around the eyes is night furred, especially in a higher place them. The dark area, however, is less circumscribed than in slender lorises and separated by a whitish stripe that widens and fades out onto the forehead higher up and widens and extends to the tip of the nose below the eyes. The common species, N. coucang, has a body plus head length between 27 and 38 cm. The outer tail is totally reduced: only a brusque stump is present and is invisible in the dense fur. The other species, Nycticebus pygmaeus, is smaller than Northward. coucang. The common name for this species is pygmy loris. Its head plus trunk lengths is 18 to 21 cm. Its fur is specially dense and woolly. The coloration of the body is grayish brown and dark on the back and lighter on the underside. A nighttime midline goes from the neck downwards the dorsum. In Nycticebus, the 2nd digit of the hand is reduced in length. The sturdy thumb constitutes one side of a virtual clamp when digits 3 to v grasp the opposite side of a co-operative. Nycticebus not only has powerful hands but peculiarly powerful grasping feet compared with the easily and feet of the slender loris. In the tedious loris, the limbs are virtually equal in length, with an intermembral alphabetize averaging 89.

Ho-hum lorises alive singly or in pairs. No distinct breeding season has been recorded. They walk deliberately, habitually holding on with three extremities at a time. They accept, nevertheless, been described to securely hold on with merely their hind feet while raising their body upright to exist able to rapidly launch forward and to seize their prey with both hands. Adult male Nycticebus are said to be very territorial in the natural habitat. They mark their territories with urine. Vocalization has been described as a low buzzing hiss or growl when they are disturbed by an intruder and as a high-pitched rise contact call and some high whistles by females during estrus. Nycticebus habitually have single offspring, but twinning does occur. Both sexes bear the infants, which are occasionally parked clinging to a co-operative too. Their diet consists of big mollusks, lizards, birds, small mammals, and fruits.

Perodicticus (Bennett, 1831) Pottos Perodicticus potto
Pseudopotto (Schwartz, 1996) 11 Pseudopotto martini
xi
In 1996, Schwartz described a new genus and species, Pseudopotto, based on a "virtually complete skeleton and adult dentition" and one partial "skull, mandible and mixed dentition" museum specimens. This assignment is not very well documented; there are no observations from the wild and no molecular information to support this new genus and species.

Pottos—Perodicticus potto (Figure iv.18)—inhabit the same full general area of tropical pelting forests in Westward Africa as the angwantibo. In improver, their range reaches farther east than that of Arctocebus, into the western areas of Uganda and Republic of kenya. In Gabon, Zaire, and Cameroon where they occur in the same forests as genus Arctocebus, they are reported to differ from them in that they adopt the college strata of the forest. The body plus head length of pottos varies betwixt 33 and 42 cm. The tail, although greatly reduced, is longer than in any of the other iii genera of lorises and can mensurate 6 to 8 cm, varying in length from individual to individual; it is e'er visible.

Figure 4.18. Perodicticus potto, the potto.

 From Ankel-Simons, 1983. Copyright © 1983

The overall appearance of pottos is close to that of slow lorises. They are stout and robust in body build and in their extremities; both look somewhat like tiny bears. Fore- and hind limbs of pottos are subequal in length with the hind limbs being somewhat longer than the forelimbs and an intermembral index of 88. The fur of pottos has a more than woolly appearance than that of boring lorises and varies in coloration from a grayish brown to a dark chocolate-brown with much lighter undersides. Both the hands and feet of pottos are powerful and adapted for grasping. Patently to extend the size of the grasp, the 2nd digit is almost totally reduced. Thus, the strongly developed thumb is positioned opposite digits three to v of the hand. Hands and feet act like powerful pairs of grasping tongues. All digits and toes are very broad and, except for the second toe, adorned with flat nails as in most prosimians. The second toe carries the preparation claw. The heel is covered with pilus, and, equally in other lorisines, both wrists and ankles are extraordinarily flexible. The head appears to be globular simply slightly flat lengthwise, with relatively small, rounded ears and the big eyes of a nocturnal prosimian. The eyes of Perodicticus, however, are comparatively smaller than those of Nycticebus. In Perodicticus, the dorsal spines of the lower neck and upper chest vertebrae are much elongated and pointed at their tips. In pottos, these dorsal spines beetle to some extent above the surface of the skin. They are covered by a cornified epithelium, hairless just surrounded by dense fur (encounter Figure viii.14). Several differing explanations in regard to the part of these spines on the base of the neck in the back have been proposed. A.C. Walker (1970) proposed that this covering skin is highly sensitive to touch and plays an important role in the social behavior of pottos. However, sensory receptors take yet to be reconfirmed within this pare surface area (Montagna and Yun, 1962). Others believe that these spines provide a defense mechanism, for instance, when pottos forage for food with their head down (Oates, 1984). Pottos are highly territorial. The home ranges of males overlap with those of one or two females, but the animals roam and sleep solitary. Voice is fabricated past high-pitched "tsic" noises, whistles, and growling, as well equally high-pitched distress calls. Pottos urine marking and males aroma mark with their circumgenital glands (Charles-Dominique, 1978). The nutrition of pottos consists principally of fruit and gum, occasionally augmented past insects and pocket-size birds or even bats.

Arctocebus (Gray, 1863) Arctocebus calabarensi
Angwantibo or Golden Potto Arctocebus aureus

The slender African loris, Arctocebus calabarensis (Effigy iv.nineteen) is commonly chosen angwantibo or gold potto. Two species are at present recognized. These animals are restricted to the tropical forest of W Africa from southeastern Nigeria, to southern Congo and western Zaire. They live in the lower wood strata. Angwantibos are somewhat larger than slender lorises; their body plus head length measures between 22 and 27 cm. They exercise not have a tail. The limbs of Arctocebus are slim, and the trunk is nearly cylindrical with an unusual, "blunt" backside, different that of any other primate. Hands and feet are different to those of nearly other prosimians. The index finger is reduced to two short phalanges, amounting to just a slight bump, and the thumb is positioned opposite digits three to five in the manus. Digits four and five are webbed past a skin duplication upwardly to the articulation between the nigh proximal and the middle phalanges, and the third digit is much shorter than digits 4 and v. Also toes 3 through five of the foot are webbed to the same extent as the digits of the paw. The heels are covered with pilus, and the second toe is equipped with the feature, strongly developed prosimian training claw. The head of Arctocebus somewhat resembles that of the slender lorises; information technology is globular with a pointed, narrow muzzle. Its ears are somewhat smaller and slightly compressed sideways and elongated compared with the round ears of genus Loris. The eyes are large merely comparatively somewhat smaller than those of slow lorises. The locomotion of the angwantibo is more rapid and less deliberate than that of tedious lorises and pottos. Their activity period is primarily at night, but they have also been observed moving about during the day. They have a comparatively woolly fur that is longer than that of genus Loris and mostly has an orange tint, which is particularly bright in the species A. aureus. The tip of the olfactory organ has a low-cal whitish line on it. Their nutrition consists mainly of insects and about 15% fruit. Angwantibos have been observed to enhance up on their hind legs into an upright position to take hold of flying moths. When frightened, they cling on to a branch rolled up into a hirsuite ball. They appear to exist mainly alone and vocalize to each other with depression growls and powerful contact calls (Charles-Dominique, 1977).

Figure 4.nineteen. Sketch of Arctocebus calabarensis, the angwantibo.

Family Galagidae (Mivart, 1864) 12

There is some disagreement about the question of whether the family unit Galagidae, unremarkably known as bushbabies, contains ane genus with four subgenera or four different genera. Napier and Napier (1967) differentiated but three subgenera that are assigned to genus Galago: Galago (Galago), the typical galagos with 3 species; Galago (Euoticus), the needle-clawed galagos with two species; and Galago (Galagoides), the dwarf galagos with one species. In 1986, Meester et al. discussed the different views concerning the assignment of genera and species of the bush babies. Bearder et al. (1995) proposed that the number of nocturnal primate species in full general and the number of galago species in particular have been "seriously underestimated." The authors stated that reason for this is that in nocturnal species, mate recognition depends on aroma and sound, non on sight as information technology does in day-living primates or birds. They proposed that "vocal fingerprinting" in the wild makes information technology possible to propose at least five or vi more bushbaby species than previously recognized. In 1996, Shoshani et al. listed iv valid genera for bushbabies, Galago (bushbabies), Galagoides (dwarf bushbabies), Otolemur (greater bushbabies), and Euoticus (needle-clawed bushbabies). Here we follow the recommendation of Nash et al. (1989) to retain all bushbabies in genus Galago.

Galago (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1796) Bushbabies Galago senegalensis
Galago moholi
Galago cameronensis
Galago gabonensis
Galago gallarum
Galago matchiei
Galago zanzibaricus
Galago granti
Galago murinus

The home range of all bushbabies including genus Galago is the continent of Africa and a few adjacent islands. Bushbabies are nocturnal and therefore all take large, frontwards-directed optics. They are characterized by globular heads, and big, membranaceous ears that tin exist folded down, accept cross ridges, and are very mobile; the 2 ears can motility independently. Bushbaby ears are relatively the largest ears of all primates. All bushbabies are upright leapers and often may fifty-fifty residue in an upright position. Their hind limbs are considerably longer than their forelimbs. Among galagos intermembral indices vary between 57 and 64. They reportedly rarely use quadrupedal locomotion.

The two species of genus Galago are medium sized, with a trunk plus head length between 12 and twenty cm and tail length that varies between 18 and 30 cm. The fur is dense, and the long tails are covered with hair and rather bushy. The color is silvery greyness to lite brown, and the undersides of body and tail are lighter in color than the superlative. The stop phalanges of fingers and toes are covered with disklike pads on the palmar and plantar attribute, and they bear apartment nails dorsally, except for the second toe, which is adorned with the characteristic prosimian toilet hook. Galagos are predominantly arboreal and nocturnal.

They inhabit open woodlands and underbrush. Females of G. moholi accept been reported to build nests. Bushbabies live in pocket-sized groups, and males appear to exist rather territorial. Vocalizations are a distinct clicking sound characteristic for immature animals, twittering and barking for long-distance communication, and high-pitched cries that have been identified every bit alarm calls. Bushbabies appear to be lively and agile animals. They are said to feed on acacia gums and insect prey, young birds, lizards, blossoms, nectar, fruit, and seeds. They occur in many areas due south of the Sahara, both in the lowlands and up to mountain heights of about 2000 thou. A considerable amount of urine washing occurs, especially in males. This wetting of the palms of hands and anxiety has been interpreted both equally territorial by spreading scent and as a means to achieve a amend grip during locomotion (Harcourt, 1981). Galagos have two births per year and usually one offspring, although twinning does occur.

The post-obit Galago species represent the dwarf bushbabies. Members of the species G. demidovii are but 10 to 15 cm long, with tails that measure between 15 and 22 cm and are the smallest of bushbabies. They live in the lower, bushy strata of forests in central African gallery forests, flooded areas, and oft plantations. They build nests of leaves in which they spend the day sleeping, females together with a young, simply only rarely with a male because males habitually sleep alone in their own nests. Their vocalizations are very varied and species feature. Allen's dwarf galago is in many respects like to Chiliad. demidorii simply somewhat larger overall. They are geographically separated from K. demidovii; Allen'due south bushbabies occur in a defined area of due west-fundamental Africa due north of the area where G. demidovii is found, from Niger eastward to Chad around the Congo river and too on the island of Fernando Po. Allen's bushbabies have a head plus trunk length that varies between xix and 21 cm, and their tails vary between 23 and 28 cm in length. Whereas Demidoff's bushbaby is grayish chocolate-brown, the third species, One thousand. zanzibaricus is said to be reddish brownish. The Zansibar bushbabies are intermediate in size between the two other species, namely measuring 14 to 17 cm in head plus body length with 20 to 23 cm long tails. They are geographically restricted to coastal Kenya, Tanzania, Republic of malaŵi, the island of Zanzibar, and south into eastern Zimbabwe. They feed on pocket-size beetles and moths and some fruit and sap. Dwarf bushbabies accept only ane offspring per year, which is carried along and hidden in brush by the mother while she forages. All dwarf galagoes are territorial and very agile. Some of them will get to the footing to pick up fallen ripe fruit.

Galagoides (Smith, 1833) Dwarf Bushbabies Galago (Galagoides, Hemigalago) thomasi
Galago (Galagoides, Hemigalago) medius
Galago (Galagoide, Hemigalago) demidovii
Galago (Galagoides) nyasae
Galago (Galagoides) orinus
Galago (Galagoides) rondoensis
Galago (Galagoides) alleni
Galago (Galagoides) udzungwensis

The largest of the bushbaby genera are known every bit the greater bushbabies, which covers three species. Although very similar to the other galagoes, these three Galago (Otolemur) species are considerably larger than the others. Their length (head plus body) varies between 27 and 47 cm with tails that are 33 to 52 cm long. They occur in Africa due south of the equator and north of the Tropic of Capricorn. They inhabit various kinds of forests and savanna-like environments, invade many kinds of plantations, and are found at heights of more 3500 m in mountainous regions. The greater bushbabies live in family groups. They use glandular scents and bite marks to mark territories and spend the day sleeping, preferably in tree holes. They oftentimes run quadrupedally and moisture the plantar surface of their soles with urine, presumably to better friction in dry areas and seasons. Information technology has been reported that this urine washing decreases when the humidity rises. They exercise run quadrupedally on the footing, frequently with the tail held upright in the air. They also have been observed to hop on the footing in a kangaroo style, covering large areas. They emit loud cries when awake that sound like to the cries of human infants. Reputedly, this is the origin of the mutual name bushbaby. Another vocalizations, such equally screams, cackles, and clicking noises, are emitted by both infants and adult animals. Greater bushbabies are omnivorous. Their nutrition includes insects and lizards, pocket-sized birds and their eggs, insects and their larvae, fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, flower buds, sap, and gum. With two breeding seasons per year, they carry one to three offspring, which are frequently parked in tree holes or nests built by the mother while she is foraging.

Otolemur (Coquerel, 1859) Greater Bushbabies Galago (Otolemur) garnettii
Galago (Otolemur) crassicaudatus
Galago (Otolemur) monteiri
Galago Euoticus (Gray, 1863) Needle-clawed Bushbabies Galago (Euoticus) elegantulus
Galago (Euoticus) inustus
Galago (Euoticus) pallidus

These three bushbaby species, G. elegantulus, G. inustus, and Galago pallidus, get their common proper name, needle-clawed bushbabies, from a unique characteristic of their fingernails on all digits except the thumb and the large toe and the 2nd phalanx of the pes; all other seven cease phalanges bear a nail that is adorned by a primal ridge that ends in a needlelike point at the finger- and toe tips. The needlelike points on fingers and toes supposedly make information technology possible for these bushbabies to explore big tree trunks, presumably past excavation into the bark with the assist of these sharp points. The second toe is also equipped with the prosimian toilet claw like all other prosimians, and the end phalanges of pollex and hallux are simply shaped like nails. K. inustus is the smaller of these species with a caput plus trunk length of 16 to 20 cm and a tail length of twenty to 26 cm. Its fur is nighttime brown, and it has black rings around the eyes. Chiliad. elegantulus is 18 to 23 cm, and its fur has an orange-brown hue. These species are generally quite similar to each other, except that the ears are comparatively larger in the smaller Chiliad. inustus than they are in G. elegantulus. These nocturnal bushbabies sleep in leaf and hunt during the night for insects and gum that is exuded by trees. G. elegantulus is likewise known every bit the western needle-clawed galago considering it occupies a larger territory than G. inustus. The western needle-clawed bushbaby is found in western Africa in the greater Congo river basin. Grand. inustus are only plant in a narrow expanse in the middle of the African continent from Lake Albert in the north to Lake Tanganyika in the southward, which roughly corresponds to the southern extension of the rift valley.

Figure 4.xx is an case of a greater bushbaby, Galago (Otolemur) garnettii.

Effigy four.twenty. Galago garnetti, Garnett's greater bushbaby.

 Photo by Michael Sewell, courtesy of the San Francisco Zoological Lodge. From Ankel-Simons, 2000. Copyright © 2000
Family unit Tarsiidae 13 (Grayness, 1825) Tarsius (Starr, 1780) Tarsiers Tarsius syrichta
Tarsius bancanus
Tarsius spectrum
Tarsius pumilus
Tarsius dianae
Tarsius pelengensis
Tarsius sangirensis
13
A recent comprehensive volume virtually genus Tarsius is Wright et al. (2003).

Simply since the terminate of the 1980s has it been generally accepted that genus Tarsius has four species, not three as formerly thought. The fourth species of Tarsius, T. pumilus, was just recognized and newly described in 1987 by Musser and Dagosto. In 2006, there were seven tarsier species. In terms of their torso size, tarsiers are the smallest major group of prosimians. They live on many islands off Southeast Asia. The geographic distribution of the species is as follows: T. syrichta lives on some of the Philippine islands and on Mindanao; T. bancanus lives in southeast Sumatra, Borneo, Banka, and too on some other pocket-size, next islands; T. spectrum lives on Sulawesi (formerly known every bit Celebes) and some of the small surrounding islands; and T. pumilus is institute in the mountain regions of the island of Sulawesi. Their trunk size ranges from 9 to 16 cm, and tail length from thirteen to 28 cm. But the last third or half of the tail is hairy. The tail's hairs are considerably longer than the brusk fine hairs of the dense fur that covers the body. T. dianae has been reported from central Sulawesi. T. pelengensi occurs on Peleng isle and T. sangirensis supposedly occurs exclusively on the island of Sangihe in northward Sulawesi. The eyes of tarsiers are relatively the largest of all primate optics: a unmarried eyeball of a tarsier has a greater volume than does the aforementioned beast's brain (Sprankel, 1965). Tarsiers have curt trunks and comparatively big, globular heads; short, small snouts; and no wet rhinarium. The ears are membranous, naked, rounded off, and very mobile. The proper noun Tarsius is derived from the elongation of the tarsus or heel bones that, amongst all the primates, are the longest in this genus. These long heels are totally covered with hair.

T. bancanus (Figure 4.21) has a special "friction pad" ventroproximally on the tail, an surface area used for additional back up when the animal clings vertically. Suction cup–like prehensile pads at the tips of the digits are feature of tarsiers. The second and third digits of tarsiers have claws; unlike all other prosimians, tarsier feet are adorned with ii grooming claws. Tarsiers move about in a vertical leaping and clinging mode and prefer upright supports. The intermembral index is low, about 56—indeed, this is the everyman intermembral alphabetize among all primates. Many tarsiers actually live in bamboo thickets, a perfect environment that provides vertical supports for an animal of the tarsier'south size. Tarsiers are, however, also found in the lower, bushlike strata of the tropical rain wood.

Figure 4.21. Tarsius bancanus, the western tarsier.

 Photo courtesy of Heinrich Sprankel. From Ankel-Simons, 1983. Copyright © 1983

Tarsiers live in pairs with ane or two offspring of dissimilar ages; females are sometimes seen alone with their offspring. As far as is known, tarsiers do not accept defined breeding seasons. These pocket-sized animals have been observed carrying their young in their mouths. Tarsiers are reported to be silent animals except when very young and during mating, when both partners vocalize. Tarsiers found and defend well-circumscribed territories. They show frequent marking behaviors with their circumanal gland by ways of "urine-washing" with their feet and other urine-marking beliefs common in prosimians. Grooming is rarely a social activity but mainly self-directed; tarsiers lick and rub their ain fur and scratch themselves frequently with the ii toilet claws of their feet.

The tarsier nutrition consists of beast protein. They alive on insects and their larvae, small lizards, and nestlings of birds and other small casualty. The litter size of tarsiers is one. The young are well-developed at birth, furred with open up optics, and capable of climbing and of making brusk jumps (Figure 4.22). Tarsiers have the power to rotate their heads about 360 degrees, which is possible because of a unique feature of the morphology of their neck vertebrae (Ankel-Simons and Simons, 2003).

Effigy 4.22. Tarsius syrichta infant.

The question of whether tarsiers are truthful prosimians or whether they should be grouped together with the anthropoid primates is at present unsolved and one of the near hotly discussed problems in primatology. In this context, I have decided to regard tarsiers together with the prosimians, because many of the characteristics in extant tarsiers align them with prosimians, not higher primates.

Tabular array 4.1 lists the suborder Prosimii.

Table iv.1.

Infraorder Genera Tupaiiformes Tupaia Lemuriformes Eulemur Lorisiformes Lorisinae Lorisiformes Galaginae Tarsiiformes Tarsius
Cervical vertebrae 7 seven seven 7 7
Thoracic vertebrae: with ribs 12 to 13 12 to 13 xv to 16 13 to 14 14
Thoracic vertebrae: articulation xi to 12 11 to 12 15 to 15 12 to thirteen 12
Lumbar vertebrae vi 6 to seven vi to 7 6 vi
Functional lumbar vertebrae 7 seven to eight 6 to 7 half dozen to 7 8
Sacral vertebrae iii iii 6 to 7 3 3
Caudal vertebrae 25 25 (Indri: 10) 7 to 11 25 Up to 30
Length of artillery in % of body length 82 106 104 112 148
Legs longer Legs longer Artillery longer Legs longer Legs much longer
Length of legs in % of body length 88 111 91 126 178
Paw length in % of torso length 23 29 28 32 55 (very long)
Foot length in % of trunk length 44 43 36 (short) 65* 91*
Locomotor activeness Climbing with the assist of claws, Hallux and thumb not opposable. Digital formula 3-4-2-5-1 Pollex non opposable. Hallux opposable. Tollet claw on second toe. Heel covered with hair. Indriidae are vertical clingers and leapers. Quadrupedal running and climbing. Predominantly arboreal except Lemur catta. Squeeze hands with farthermost opposition of the thumb. Second finger much reduced. Clasp feet similar to hands. 4th toe the longest. Second toe much reduced. Toilet claw on second toe. *Calcaneus and navicular elongated. Specialized leapers. Grasping hand with fourth digit the longest. Disque shaped pads. Foot specialized for jumping and grasping. Toilet claw on second toe. *Fused tibio-fibula, Calcaneus and navicular much elongated. Extreme leapers. Third digits the longest. Expanded terminal disques. Toilet claws on second and third toes.
Activity design Diuna/crepuscular Diurnal, crepuscular. Several genera are nocturnal. Nocturnal Nocturnal Nocturnal

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Skull

Friderun Ankel-Simons , in Primate Anatomy (Third Edition), 2007

Lorisidae

The skulls of Lorisidae, compared with those of other prosimians, give the impression of existence dorsoventrally flat, especially in species of genera Perodicticus and Nycticebus. The interorbital distance is more often than not smaller in Lorisidae than in Malagasy Lemuridae or Indriidae. This narrowness is also seen in lorisids in the lessened postorbital breadth of the skull, or "postorbital constriction." Moreover, amongst lorisids the snout does not taper toward the front as much as in Lemuridae and thus gives the impression of existence less long and pointed insufficiently. Among lorisines, the nasal bones are flatter than in Lemuridae. A feature elongation of the snout beyond the front end of the tooth row is plant in species of the two lorisid genera Arctocebus and Loris. This phenomenon is brought about as a result of their comparatively large premaxillae, the upper margins of which project frontward. The nasal basic also enter this project, thus forming a pipelike nasal opening. In addition, the snout is narrow in Arctocebus and Loris. In Nycticebus, the occipital is flattened and faces backward. The foramen magnum opens most directly astern in Nycticebus of all Lorisidae. Skulls of galagids resemble those of lorisids, but slight differences tin can be detected. For instance, with galagids the cranial vault is slightly more rounded than in Lorisidae, and the interorbital distance is somewhat wider. The postorbital constriction, even so, is much more marked in Galagidae than in Lemuridae. The pocket-size lacrimal bone at the lower inside corner of the orbit extends considerably forward onto the outside of the orbital wall, and the lacrimal canal (tear duct) is positioned externally. Figure v.16 shows the skull base of a loris genus Perodicticus.

Figure 5.16. Skull base of a loris genus Perodicticus showing basicranial foramina. 1) Foramen incisivum; 2) f. palatinum major; 3) f. palatinum minus; 4) foramen ovale; 5) foramen lacerum; 6) f. postglenoideum; vii) Tuba auditiva; 8) Meatus acousticus externus; 9) f. condyloideum; x) f. jugulare; xi) f. caroticum.

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From Whence We Came

Henry R. Hermann Ph.D. , in Dominance and Assailment in Humans and Other Animals, 2017

Lorises

Eleven extant species of lorises are found in Africa, Due south Asia, and Southeast Asia (Fig. five.one). All lorises are nocturnal and insect eaters. In the Smithsonian handbook, Mammals, J. Clutton-Brock and D. Due east. Wilson (2002) listing the slender and tiresome loris as examples. They both demonstrate the feature wearisome movements of lorises, which aid them to be cryptic and escape the notice of predators. The potto and angroantibos are also members of the family to which lorises belong. The potto, from West and Cardinal Africa, feeds on fruits, leaves, sap, fungi, and small animals. Angwantibos, from Due west Africa, forage on insects (Brandon-Jones et al., 2004).

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Placentation and Early on Primate Evolution

Friderun Ankel-Simons , in Primate Beefcake (Third Edition), 2007

LEMURIDAE AND LORISIDAE

The placenta of Lemuridae and Lorisidae is adeciduate, diffuse, and epitheliochorial. Nonetheless, Galago demidovii—the dwarf galago—was studied by the French scholar Gérard (1932), who describes the placenta as having a well-defined region of the endotheliochorial type inside an overall epitheliochorial placenta. Thus in the pregnant M. demidovii uterus all six tissue layers are nowadays overall, except for a minor and divers region where the embryo's chorion epithel is direct adjacent to the outside of the maternal claret vessels. This discovery has been widely accepted by subsequent authors but has never been reconfirmed, presumably because of a lack of material. Starck (1956), however, believes that Gérard'south observations will anytime exist proven correct, and that therefore it is of involvement to go along in heed that the dwarf galago may take an expanse of college functional interchange inside a placenta that is otherwise of lemuroid character.

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Animals, Poisonous and Venomous

T. Dodd-Butera , M. Broderick , in Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Tertiary Edition), 2014

Slow Loris

Introduction

The slow loris, family unit Lorisidae, genus Nycticebus, is a nocturnal arboreal primate found in Vietnam, Republic of indonesia, and the rainforests of Malaysia. They are considered to be an endangered species as of 2012 and are listed on the IUCN Red Listing. Their diet consists of insects, bird eggs, small vertebrates, and fruit.

Toxicity

The slow loris is the only venomous primate. Slow lorises have a toxic bite due to a toxin that is produced past the licking a gland on their inner elbow, the brachial organ. Saliva from the slow loris is required to actuate the secretion from the arm gland. However, very lilliputian else is known well-nigh the chemic nature of the toxin. The slow loris bite is reported to exist painful in humans with symptoms including called-for of the tongue and throat, hypotension, muscle convulsions, heart and respiratory issues, unconsciousness, and even death through anaphylaxis shock.

Treatment

Vaccination confronting tetanus and antibiotics is ofttimes given to bite victims. Treatment is symptomatic for bites and anaphylaxis.

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Prosimians

Cathy V. Williams , in Fowler'due south Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Book viii, 2015

Biology

Prosimian primates are composed of lemurs, lorises, pottos, and galagos. The classification of primates remains somewhat controversial, and taxonomic structure continues to exist revised as the increasing corporeality of genetic information is reconciled with before methods of classifications based on morphology and fossil records. Most authorities now follow a systematic arrangement in which the primates are divided into two suborders: (1) Strepsirhini (i.e., the tooth combed primates), and (2) Haplorhini, which includes the tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. The Strepsirhine group is further divided into ii infraorders: Lorisiformes and Lemuriformes. The infraorder Lorisiformes includes all the extant African and Asian species of lorises, pottos, and galagos, which are represented past nine genera and 18 species of small-bodied, nocturnal primates. 28 The infraorder Lemuriformes is equanimous of five families owned to Republic of madagascar: (1) Lemuridae (bamboo lemurs, ring-tailed lemurs, true lemurs, and ruffed lemurs), (2) Indriidae (indri, sifakas, and woolly lemurs), (3) Cheirogaleidae (mouse lemurs, dwarf lemurs, and fork-marked lemurs), (iv) Lepilemuridae (sportive lemurs), and (5) Daubentoniidae (aye-yes).

Lemurs are plant in a wide range of ecologic niches in Madagascar, including the low to high distance tropical pelting forests on the eastward coast, the dry deciduous forests of the westward, and the spiny deserts of the due south. Lorises are native to Southeast Asia and the tropical forests of Republic of india and Sri Lanka, and galagos (bush babies) and pottos are distributed throughout Africa south of the Sahara. 28

Over the last 2000 years, at least 17 species of lemurs have become extinct, and the ranges of most extant species have decreased dramatically, largely because of human activity. All prosimian species are threatened to diverse degrees in the wild. All members of the family Lemuridae too as Nycticebus sp. (slow lorises) are listed in CITES Appendix I past the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Galagos, pottos, and the slender loris (Loris tardigradis) are listed in CITES Appendix II. xviii Habitat devastation is the largest threat; however, hunting for bush-league meat and capture for sale in the pet trade also contribute to their declining numbers.

Many species are not represented in captivity or are present in just very small numbers. Of the lemur species displayed in zoos, Lemur catta (band-tailed lemur) are most numerous followed past Varecia (ruffed lemurs) and Eulemur (truthful lemurs or black and brown lemurs). Increasingly, Propithecus (sifaka) and Daubentoina (aye-yes) are found on display in North American and European zoos as better husbandry and feeding programs for these species are developed. Galagos, although not present in zoos in large numbers, are oftentimes used in enquiry settings.

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The Prosimians

John Grand. Fleagle , in Primate Adaptation and Evolution (Third Edition), 2013

Lorisids

In contrast to the rapid running and leaping of galagos, lorises (Table 4.8) are all-time known for their dull, stealthy habits. They have smaller ears than galagos, their forelimbs and hindlimbs are more than similar in length, and they lack long tails. Despite their slowness, they accept the broadest geographic distribution (betwixt endpoints) of any strepsirrhine family unit, with two or iii genera in Africa and two in Asia. The number of lorisid species is debated, and in that location is considerable morphological and behavioral multifariousness within recognized taxa (Nekaris and Bearder, 2011).

TABLE iv.8. Infraorder LORISIFORMES

Family LORISIDAE

Common name Species Intermembral index Mass (g)
Chiliad F
W African Potto Perodicticus potto 88 830 836
Milne–Edwards' Potto P. edwardsi - 1502 1572
East African Potto P. ibeanus - 920 861
Calabar Angwantibo Arctocebus calabarensis 89 312 306
Golden Angwatibo A. aureus - 210 -
Cherry-red Slender Loris Loris tardigradus 90 264 269
Gray Slender Loris L. lydekkerianus - - -
Sunda Slow Loris Nycticebus coucang 88 679 626
Bengal Slow Loris N. benegalensis - 1310 1110
Pygmy Irksome Loris North. pygmaeus 91 418 307
Bornean Irksome Loris N. menagensis - 265–300
Javan Slow loris N. javanicus - - -

The pottos (Perodicticus potto) are the largest of the African lorises and the most widespread. Their range extends from Liberia in the west to Kenya in the east. Pottos adopt the main, continuous canopy of both primary and secondary forests and move on relatively big supports (Fig. 4.21). At some sites, their nutrition has been reported to be largely frugivorous, with much smaller amounts of animal matter and gums. At other sites, however, pottos swallow much more glue and less fruit and brute material. These might be seasonal differences. The potto has been described equally an animal that specializes in olfactory foraging, and its most characteristic activity is slow climbing forth large supports, with its nose to the co-operative.

Like galagos, pottos seem to be alone foragers and to have overlapping male and female person ranges. The females take single births. Pottos do not build nests, but rather slumber curled up on branches. During the dark, females do non carry their babe but 'park' it for the evening and return for it subsequently. The infants are white at nativity and plow a drab brown within a few months.

The angwantibos are smaller, more slender African lorisids, with a restricted distribution in west primal Africa. There are 2 species, Arctocebus calabarensis (angwantibo) and A. aureus (gold angwantibo). Angwantibos adopt the understory of chief and secondary forests, where they are unremarkably plant less than 5 m above the ground. They move past irksome quadrupedal climbing on very pocket-sized branches and lianas. They are predominantly insectivorous, specializing on noxious caterpillars. Socially, they announced to be very like to pottos.

Asian lorises (Fig. iv.22), like their African counterparts, come in two shapes, thin and plump, but the 2 genera are not sympatric. The slender lorises, Loris, are from Sri Lanka and southern Republic of india. The smaller red slender loris Loris tardigradus, is from Sri Lanka. The larger gray slender loris, 50. lydekkerianus, is from Sri Lanka and parts of southern India. Slender lorises take been accurately described as a banana on stilts. They are found in the understory of dry forests and in the canopy of wetter forests, where they motion about amidst the fine twigs. Their diet consists totally of beast matter, including a diverse menu of both invertebrates and vertebrates ranging in size from ants to lizards (Nekaris and Bearder, 2011).

The slow lorises (Nycticebus), from Southeast Asia, are stockier animals. In that location are numerous species. The largest is the Bengali slow loris, Nycticebus bengalensis from Assam. Nycticebus coucang is from mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra, and has 2 closely related taxa, Due north. javanicus from Java and Northward. menangensis from Borneo. The small Due north. pygmaeus from Vietnam and Lao people's democratic republic is sympatric with N. coucang (Ravosa, 1998). Slow lorises are found primarily in the chief canopy merely seem to show no preference for primary, secondary, or deciduous forests. Slow lorises move mainly by slow quadrupedal climbing and bridging. All reports indicate that fruit, animal casualty and gums brand upward the nutrition of all species of boring lorises (Nekaris and Bearder, 2011). Most species have been reported to sleep in either tree hollows or vine tangles, and sleeping groups include one or more than females with offspring and oftentimes a male.

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The Taxonomy of Primates in the Laboratory Context

Groves Colin , in The Laboratory Primate, 2005

Loris and Nycticebus

Slender and Tedious lorises are the only Asian strepsirrhines. Like mouse lemurs, they are nocturnal. Slender lorises, of which there are two species (L.tardigradus in the moisture zone of Sri Lanka and L.lydekkerianus in the dry zone of Sri Lanka and in southern Republic of india), feed nigh entirely on insects, peculiarly ants (Nekaris and Rasmussen, 2003), plus some vegetable matter. Boring lorises, of which there are three species (Groves, 2001) are more vegetarian, especially frugivorous, only also require some animate being casualty. Lorises, despite some beingness dubbed "slow", can move with surprising speed when pressed; both types can bite hard, and the bite of Irksome lorises is toxic (Alterman, 1995).

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Handbook of Ultrasonic Vocalization

Jaco Bakker , Johannes A.M. Langermans , in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2018

I Introduction

Primates are generally classified into six major groups: Lemuroidea (including the lemurs of Madagascar); Lorisoidea (including lorises and galagos); Tarsioidea (with the tarsiers); Ceboidea (New Earth monkeys); Cercopithecoidea (Old Globe monkeys); and Hominoidea (apes and humans). The taxonomic list of the New World monkeys (Infraorder Platyrrhini), which we describe here, inverse and will change considerably, even in the near future, with farther discoveries of new forms, genetic and phylogenetic analyses, and the revision of genera and species groups based on morphology and the report of museum specimens. The Platyrrhini can exist grouped into 4 major subfamily radiations: Atelinae, Pitheciinae, Cebinae, and Callitrichinae. The Callitrichinae are classified into 5 genera: Saguinus (tamarin), Leontopithecus (lion tamarin), Callimico (Goeldi'due south monkey), Cebuella (pygmy marmoset), and Callithrix (marmoset). The genus Callithrix is comprised of xiii species (Rylands & Mittermeier, 2009).

We will employ the term "marmoset" for all species of the genera Callithrix. Marmosets, in general, are social arboreal animals, owned to the forest habitat of S America. Their natural diet consists of fruits, seeds, insects, bird eggs, and tree gum. They are specialized in exploiting exudates by gouging the bark of trees that produce gums. In club to be able to feed on exudates, their intestines accept an enlarged complex cecum that allows them to digest gums efficiently and survive in areas where fruit is highly seasonal or not readily available. Marmosets live in cooperatively bred family groups composed of an developed breeding pair and multiple sets of offspring. The social behavior of marmosets inside groups revolves effectually two aspects of marmoset reproduction: reproductive suppression, which prevents subordinate males and females from engaging in sexual behavior; and a cooperative breeding system, which means that the male and all previous offspring help with the care of the new offspring. Marmosets produce generally twins or triplets, which are os-marrow chimeras equally a outcome of the institution of vascular anastomoses between the placentae of the embryos that let sharing bone-marrow elements (Abbott, Barnett, Colman, Yamamoto, & Schultz-Darken, 2003; Hearn, Lunn, Burden, & Pilcher, 1975; Hubrecht, 1984; Mansfield, 2003; Ross, French, & Ortí, 2007).

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Study of Nonhuman Primate Social Beliefs

Lawrence Due east. Williams , Irwin S. Bernstein , in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Inquiry (Second Edition), Volume 1, 2012

Solitary Primates

Alone primates include species that forage largely solitarily and showroom direct contact betwixt the sexes infrequently. Alone primates include the nocturnal primates Lorisidae and Tarsiidae, whose habitats range from Africa through Southeast Asia. Their mating systems range from monogamous to polygamous, depending on the degree of home range overlap betwixt males and females. In many galago species, males have large home ranges that may overlap those of several females and lead to polygamous mating. Male tarsiers, on the other mitt, take ranges that tend to overlap merely one female, creating a de facto monogamous pair, although the sexes may have very little direct association. In the galagos species, the amount of fourth dimension spent in social contact varies greatly.

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